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I also outline a simple framework showing how individual authors as well as editors can help strengthen and formally acknowledge botanical research.

However, such rewilding trajectories vary substantially according to local environmental stressors, with plantations on northern aspects and in milder environments showing faster processes compared with plantations on southern aspects and in harsher environmental conditions.

We found that old-established pine plantations established using a tree species (Pinus nigra) located close to its native distribution range are generally evolving toward near-natural systems.

We evaluated which environmental conditions influence these plantations, the role of the different vegetation layers, and whether native forest species return more rapidly under benign conditions and more slowly under stressful ones.

This review is a call to action: to rethink how we manage these landscapes, to blend innovation with tradition, and to rally political and public support for their conservation. If we act wisely, TAFs can continue to nourish both people and planet for generations to come.

Yet, despite their richness, these systems are under threat. Economic pressures, changing land-use patterns, and a loss of traditional knowledge are pushing them toward decline.

But their importance goes beyond biodiversity. TAFs contribute to carbon sequestration, soil fertility, water regulation, and even the preservation of cultural identity. They are multifunctional landscapes that offer solutions to some of today’s most pressing environmental challenges.

From the dehesas and montados of Southern Europe to the wood pastures and traditional orchards of Central and Eastern Europe, TAFs are home to an astonishing diversity of life all playing vital roles in maintaining ecological balance.

Our systematic review, spanning over 30 years of research and 232 studies, has brought new light to the value and vulnerability of these systems.

These landscapes, shaped by generations of farmers and shepherds, are more than just productive land. They are living ecosystems, cultural heritage sites, and models of sustainability.

Across Europe, there exists a quiet yet powerful legacy - Traditional Agroforestry Systems (TAFs) - where agriculture and biodiversity have coexisted for centuries.